Motivation

The focus on information processing and hypothesis formulation, consideration of alternative strategies and hypothesis testing have become the key foundations of systems thinking for 21st century learning in STEAM. Simon (1969) further points out that ‘The natural sciences are concerned with how things are...design on the other hand is concerned with how things ought to be.’

Dewey (1910) proposes that problem-solving involves confusion/doubt at the onset, followed by efforts to identify the problem, and the gaps which need to be addressed, associating these to prior knowledge (prior hypotheses and solutions), testing and reformulation of hypotheses, and finally assimilating the successful solution to the existing cognitive structure (schema).

Newell and Simon’s (1972) and Novak’s (1977) view of problem-solving involves processing symbolically coded information based on mechanisms such as perception. Processed information is then organized, transformed, stored and retrieved cyclically.

Ausubel and Robinson (1971) agrees and highlights the importance of understanding the problem. Thereafter, the learner needs to generate alternative solutions using prior knowledge and infer based on prior knowledge. Acceptability of the solution needs to be tested.

Problem-based Learning, Learning-by-Design (Kolodner, Camp, Crismond, Fasse, Gray, Holbrook, Puntambekar, & Ryan, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004), creativity studies (Goel & Craw, 2005, Resnick, 2007; Peppler & Kafai, 2007), computational thinking (Wing, 2006) and design/architectural patterns are some key theoretical foundations. Success has led the maker movement towards transformative design.